The study of the behavior of people and their relationships with each other was done by philosophers of antiquity. Already then there was such a thing as ethos ("ethos" in ancient Greek), which means living together in a house. Later they began to designate a stable phenomenon or sign, for example, character, custom.
The subject of ethics as a philosophical category was first applied by Aristotle, giving it the significance of human virtues.
History of Ethics
Already 2500 years ago, great philosophers identified the main traits of a person’s character, his temperament and spiritual qualities, which he called ethical virtues. Cicero, having familiarized himself with the works of Aristotle, introduced the new term “morality”, which he attached the same meaning to.
The subsequent development of philosophy led to the fact that a separate discipline stood out in it - ethics. The subject (definition) studied by this science is morality. For quite a long time, the same meaning was given to these categories, but some philosophers distinguished them. For example, Hegel believed that morality is the subjective perception of actions, and morality is the actions themselves and their objective nature.
Depending on the historical processes taking place in the world, and changes in the social development of society, the subject of ethics has constantly changed its meaning and content. What was inherent in primitive people became unusual for the inhabitants of the ancient period, and their ethical standards were criticized by medieval philosophers.
Preantical Ethics
Long before the subject of ethics as a science was formed, there was a long period, which is commonly called “pre-ethics”.
One of the most prominent representatives of that time can be called Homer, whose heroes possessed a set of positive and negative qualities. But the general concept of what actions relate to virtue and which not, he has not yet formed. Neither the Odyssey, nor the Iliad are instructive in nature, but are simply a narrative of events, people, heroes, and gods living at that time.
For the first time, basic human values as a measure of ethical virtue were voiced in the works of Hesiod, who lived at the beginning of the class division of society. The main qualities of a person, he considered honest work, justice and legality of action as the basis of what leads to the preservation and increase of property.
The first tenets of morality were the statements of the five sages of antiquity:
- respect the elders (Chilon);
- Avoid untruth (Cleobulus);
- glory to the gods, and honor to parents (Solon);
- observe the measure (Thales);
- pacify anger (Chilo);
- promiscuity is a flaw (Thales).
These criteria required certain behavior from people, and therefore became the first moral standards for people of that time. Ethics as a science, the subject and tasks of which is the study of man and his qualities, was only in its infancy in this period.
Sophists and ancient sages
From the 5th century BC, the rapid development of sciences, arts and architecture began in many countries. Never before had such a large number of philosophers been born, various schools and movements were formed that paid great attention to the problems of man, his spiritual and moral qualities.
The most significant at that time was the philosophy of Ancient Greece, represented by two areas:
- Amoralists and sophists who denied the creation of mandatory moral requirements for all. For example, the sophist Protagoras believed that the subject and object of ethics is morality, the category is unstable, changing under the influence of time. It belongs to the category of relative, since each nation in a certain period of time has its own moral principles.
- They were opposed by such great minds as Socrates, Plato, Aristotle, who created the subject of ethics as the science of morality and Epicurus. They believed that virtue was based on harmony between reason and emotions. In their opinion, it was not given by the gods, which means it is a tool to separate good deeds from evil ones.
It was Aristotle in his work "Ethics" divided the moral qualities of man into 2 types:
- ethical, that is, associated with temper and temperament;
- dianoetic - related to the mental development of a person and the ability to influence passions with the help of the mind.
According to Aristotle, the subject of ethics is 3 teachings - on the highest good, on virtues in general and in particular, and the object of study is man. It was he who introduced into the rim that morality (ethics) is the acquired qualities of the soul. He developed the concept of a virtuous person.
Epicurus and the Stoics
In contrast to Aristotle, Epicurus put forward his hypothesis of morality, according to which only a life that leads to the satisfaction of basic needs and desires is happy and virtuous, because they are easily achieved, which means they make a person serene and happy with everything.
The deepest mark after Aristotle in the development of ethics was the Stoics. They believed that all virtues (good and evil) are inherent in man in the same way as in the surrounding world. The goal of people is to develop in themselves qualities that are consistent with good, and eliminate the evil principle. The most prominent representatives of the Stoics were Zeno in Greece, Seneca and Marcus Aurelius in Rome.
Medieval ethics
During this period, the subject of ethics is the promotion of Christian dogmas, as religious morality began to rule the world. The highest goal of man in the medieval era is to serve God, which was interpreted through the teachings of Christ about love for him.
If ancient philosophers believed that virtues are a property of any person and his task is to increase them on the side of goodness, in order to be in harmony with himself and the world, then with the development of Christianity they have become divine grace, which the Creator gives people or not.
The most famous philosophers of that time are St. Augustine and Thomas Aquinas. According to the first, the commandments were originally perfect, since they came from God. He who lives according to them and glorifies the Creator will go to heaven to him, and the rest is destined for hell. St. Augustine also claimed that such a category as evil does not exist in nature. It is performed by people and angels who have turned away from the Creator for their own being.
Thomas Aquinas went even further, announcing that bliss is not possible in life - it is the foundation of the afterlife. Thus, the subject of ethics in the Middle Ages lost its connection with man and his qualities, giving way to church ideas about the world and the place of people in it.
New ethics
A new round of the development of philosophy and ethics begins with the denial of morality as the divine will given to man in the ten commandments. For example, Spinoza claimed that the Creator is nature, the cause of all things, acting according to its own laws. He believed that in the surrounding world there is no absolute good and evil, there are only situations in which a person acts in one way or another. It is the understanding of what is useful and what is harmful to the preservation of life that determines the nature of people and their moral qualities.
According to Spinoza, the subject and tasks of ethics are the study of human flaws and virtues in the process of seeking happiness, and they are based on the desire for self-preservation.
Immanuel Kant, on the contrary, believed that the core of everything is free will, which is part of moral duty. His first law of morality reads: “Do things in such a way that you always acknowledge reasonable will in yourself and others not as a means to an achievement, but as a goal.”
Initially, evil (egoism) inherent in a person is the center of all actions and goals. To rise above him, people must show full respect for both their own and others' identities. It was Kant who revealed the subject of ethics briefly and accessible as a philosophical science, standing apart from its other species, creating formulas of ethical views on the world, state and politics.
Modern ethics
In the 20th century, the subject of ethics as a science is morality based on non-violence and reverence for life. The manifestation of good began to be viewed from the perspective of non-multiplication of evil. Especially well this side of the ethical perception of the world through the prism of good was revealed by Leo Tolstoy.
Violence breeds violence and increases suffering and pain - this is the main motive of this ethics. It was also adhered to by M. Gandhi, who strove to make India free without violence. In his opinion, love is the most powerful weapon, acting with the same strength and accuracy as the basic laws of nature, for example, gravity.
Nowadays, many countries have come to understand that the ethics of non-violence gives more effective results in conflict resolution, although it cannot be called passive. She has two forms of protest: non-cooperation and civil disobedience.
Ethical values
One of the foundations of modern moral values is the philosophy of Albert Schweitzer, the founder of the ethics of reverence for life. His concept was respect for any life without dividing it into useful, higher or lower, valuable or worthless.
At the same time, he acknowledged that, due to circumstances, people can save their lives by taking away someone else's. At the heart of his philosophy is the conscious choice of a person towards the preservation of life, if the situation allows it, and not its thoughtless withdrawal. Schweizer considered self-denial, forgiveness, and service to people as the main criteria for preventing evil.
In the modern world, ethics as a science does not dictate the rules of behavior, but studies and systematizes common ideals and norms, a common understanding of morality and its significance in the life of both an individual person and society as a whole.
The concept of morality
Morality is a sociocultural phenomenon that forms the fundamental essence of humanity. All people's activities are based on ethical standards recognized in the society in which they live.
Knowledge of moral rules and ethics of behavior help individuals adapt among others. Morality is also an indicator of the degree of responsibility of a person for his actions.
Ethical and spiritual qualities are brought up from childhood. From theory, thanks to the right actions in relation to others, they become the practical and everyday side of human life, and their violation is condemned by the public.
Ethics objectives
Since ethics studies the essence of morality and its place in society, it solves the following tasks:
- describes morality from the history of formation in antiquity to the principles and norms inherent in modern society;
- gives the characteristic of morality from the position of its “due” and “existing” version;
- It teaches people basic moral principles, gives knowledge about good and evil, helps to improve oneself when choosing one's own understanding of the “right life”.
Thanks to this science, an ethical assessment of people's actions and their relationships is built with an orientation toward understanding, whether good or evil is achieved.
Types of Ethics
In modern society, the activities of people in numerous areas of life are very closely related, therefore, the subject of ethics considers and studies its various types:
- family ethics deals with the relationship of people in marriage;
- business ethics - norms and rules of doing business;
- corporate studies the relationship in the team;
- professional ethics educates and studies the behavior of people in their workplace.
Today, many countries are implementing ethical laws regarding the death penalty, euthanasia and organ transplantation. As human society continues to evolve, ethics will change along with it.