The word "tracing paper" has several meanings in Russian. This article considers the linguistic meaning of the word “tracing paper” as a language copy in another language, as a semantic (ie, semantic) borrowing from a foreign language by literal translation in parts of a word or verbal phraseology.
Tracing paper from one language to another
Tracing paper (French calque) in linguistics, linguistics and translation studies is a word or expression built on the model of the corresponding words and expressions of a foreign language by accurately reproducing (copying) their meaning by means of their native language. The appearance of cripples is usually associated with a sharp increase in the number of direct borrowings of foreign words and manifests itself as a reaction to this phenomenon.
Tracing paper cannot be translated in monosyllabic. The word order in the source language must be followed in the borrowing language.
Considered a classic: tracing - translation into English of the word skyscraper (literally, "sky + scratching") and a Russian skyscraper.
It is customary to say that when tracing a word, the internal (the term of linguistics) is used, and not its visible form (shell).
Tracing in translation is especially often used for terms (special words in one field of knowledge). For example, the German calorifer (literally, "heat + carry") and the Russian air heater.
But words were counted not only by compounding. There is also a “two-stage” tracing. It can be clearly explained by the example of the phrase nominative:
a) In Greek, this is onomastike ptosis from onoma - “name” + pipto - “fall”.
b) In Latin, it is nominativus casus from nomen - “name” + cado - “fall”.
c) Russian language: nominative case - from the words name and fall.
Calculation, as one of the ways of translating phraseological units
There are many ways to translate phraseological units (or stable combinations of words) into other languages.
The first is the replacement of it with a phraseological analogue or equivalent, which would fully correspond in meaning to the original phraseological unit and would be based on the same well-known artistic image. Examples of such a translation are such phrases as the Achilles' heel, the thread of Ariadne, pouring crocodile tears, all cats are sulfur at night and the like.
The second method is the selection of a phraseological analogue, which coincides in meaning, but is based on a different image. An example is the English not for love or money (literally, not for love, not for money) translated into Russian as "for nothing in the world", "for no gimmicks."
The third method is a descriptive translation, which is possible if the borrowing language does not have an equivalent or an analogue and it is simply impossible to use tracing in a translation. English when the cat is away, the mice will play (literally, when the cat leaves, the mice play) can be translated as "when the owner is gone, the servants of the backyard beat" or "when the bosses are gone, the employees do what they want," or in another way , depending on the context where the expression comes from.
The fourth way is a contextual substitution, when the translation uses Russian phraseology, which does not coincide in meaning with English, but in this particular text conveys its meaning. English I am a poor hand at advice literally means "I am too poor to advise," and translates as "I am not a master at giving advice."
Calculation as the fifth way to translate phraseological units
Calculation and descriptive translation are some of the ways to translate phraseological units. Phraseological tracing - the literal (single-root) translation of each of the words in a sentence. Examples: a cat may look at a King translates as "even a cat is allowed to look at the king", and the expression a friend in need is a friend indeed, as "a friend in need is a true friend."
Calculation techniques in translation:
- the word "insect" - tracing paper from Latin (in "on" + sectum "sekomoe", consisting of parts);
- the word "library" - tracing-paper from Greek (biblion "book" + theke - storage);
- the word "madness" - tracing-paper from Greek (a - "without" + phronis - "mind, reason"),
- the expression "struggle for existence" - tracing paper from the English struggle for life.
- the expression "time is money" - tracing paper from English ("time" time, is - "is", money - "money"),
The name of the city Pyatigorsk is a tracing-paper from Turkic, which can be judged by the name of the Beshtau mountain located near the city (from 5 - “Besh” + mountain “Tau”).
Existing types and examples of cripples. Word-building tracing paper
All tracing papers can be divided into word-building, semantic, phraseological (were considered above) and half-shakes. Each type of tracing in the translation has its own characteristics when transferring from a particular language, which must be taken into account in order to avoid mistakes.
Word-building tracing papers are words obtained by Pomor-morphic (root-meaning) translation of a word into another language:
- the word "semiconductor" - tracing paper from English (semi "semi" + conductor - "conductor");
- the term "electromagnetic induction", which became Russian since the 19th century, is a tracing-paper from English (electro-magnetic inductor).
Semantic tracing: examples, errors in literal translation
Semantic tracing papers are words that have received completely new meanings under the influence of words from a foreign language. So the Russian word "refined" with the submission of the French raffiné began to mean "sophisticated, refined." There are times when tracing paper leads to errors. This is especially true for the terms: each of its component words is literally translated instead of the translation as a whole:
- X-rays are X-rays, not X-rays.
- Arctic fox (White fox, Polar fox, Snow fox) - all this is a polar fox and not something else.
- Black ice is ice, not obscure black ice, here black means bad.
- The city of winds is not only a "city of winds", but also the nickname of the city of Chicago in conversation and literature.
Semikalka, its features and examples
A half-pebble is a tracing of only part of compound words. In the word humanity, the Latin root human-us is connected with the Russian suffix "-ost".
In the English-Russian dictionaries of the beginning of the XX century there is a tracing-translation of the word television - far-sighted, but the word television - half-pecking has taken root, where the body is a simple borrowing, and the “vision” part is a tracing-translation.
The difference between tracing and transliteration
Transliteration (literally: lettering) is a way of translating when letters of one writing are transmitted by letters of another. An example of transliteration is V. Scott’s novel “Aivengo” or Ivangoe, which in the 19th century was called “Ivangoe” in Russia (its name is spelled in English).
This is an example of how transliteration and tracing in translation can usually be considered rivals. Experts recommend using tracing papers to translate terms, especially technical ones, and transliteration - to translate proper names (names of people, rivers, cities, etc.). Then Isaac Newton and Isaac Asimov would have the same name, and not different.
Experienced translators recommend distinguishing tracing paper and morphological transmission, or transliteration. With the help of endings formed by changing the word taken in Russian, the word is converted into a new one. Latin intonatio can be translated in two ways: tracing paper - the word tuning (from in + tonus), or morphological transmission - the word intonation (foreign prefix and root "intonac" + Russian ending "-i"). Two different translation methods gave two different meanings of the same word.
For examples of tracing in translation, you can take the English expressions drain brain and brain storm. The traces in the Russian language will be the expressions “brain drain” (in the sense of: loss of the intellectual elite) and “brain storm” (in the sense of: exciting sudden fruitful ideas), and transliteration as “brain brain” and brain brain. Both forms are very expressive and beautifully sound, so today they are equally applied.
Errors when translating using cripples
Tracing paper is called false if the semantic structure of a word from another language is misinterpreted in the borrowing. An example is the translation of the Latin name for an aqualegia aquatic plant - aquilegia (from aqua - “water” + legia - “community”). In Russian, it was translated as "eagle" from the Latin aquila - "eagle".
For the correct translation, it is necessary not only to master the vocabulary of two languages, but to very subtly feel and understand their structure, logic, morphology.