In the Jewish tradition, there is such a thing as “Meshumad” (משומד), which literally means Hebrew from Hebrew. So the sons of Israel from time immemorial called their fellow tribesmen who converted to a different faith (most often it was Christianity), and, thereby, severed ties with the Jewish community. In Russia, such people were called "crosses." Sometimes they pursued selfish goals with their actions, sometimes the reason was religious beliefs, but most often their fathers' faith was abandoned under the pressure of external circumstances, especially in those countries where anti-Semitism became part of state policy.
Crosses are not only Jews
As indicated in the dictionary of V.I. Dahl, synonyms for the word “cross” are expressions such as a baptized person, a cross, a baptized Jew, and so on. A number of verbs derived from these nouns are also given. However, it also states that this term is applicable not only to Jews, but also to representatives of any other faiths who, for one reason or another, underwent the sacrament of baptism in the Orthodox Church.
A look into the past
According to historical chronicles, the tradition of voluntary, and often forced transition from Judaism to Christianity dates back to the Middle Ages. In particular, information has been preserved about the so-called "marranes" - the forerunners of modern crosses. These were the Spanish and Portuguese Jews, who in the XIV - XV centuries. under pressure from the Inquisition, they renounced Judaism and were baptized. This name remained with them until the end of their lives, no matter how voluntary their appeal was.
Along the way, we note that one of the first baptized Jews was the apostle Paul, but the terms “marran” or “cross” were never used in relation to him. And even more so, this does not apply to the Son of the Jewish Virgin Mary, at the age of thirty, who was baptized in the waters of the Jordan River. Strictly speaking, all first Christians who were Jews before their conversion also fall into the category of crosses, but they are not accepted to be called that way.
Discrimination of Jews in Tsarist Russia
As mentioned above, in the Jewish tradition, the word “cross” itself is a synonym for such expressions as a renegade, traitor and apostate who destroyed his own soul. In whatever context the Jews utter it, in their lips it is always filled with a deeply negative meaning. Suffice it to say that, having become a crosshair, a person, as a rule, broke ties not only with the Jewish community, but also with his family. Exceptions to this rule were extremely rare.
In Russia, the most massive conversion of Jews to Orthodoxy was observed in the 19th century, as well as at the beginning of the 20th. The reason for this was the legislative restrictions established in 1791. In particular, we are talking about the so-called Pale of Settlement - a list of territories beyond which it was forbidden to settle the bulk of the Jewish population. The exceptions were only a very limited circle of persons. Although over the next century this law was repeatedly amended, until 1917, Jews were infringed on their civil rights.
Jew and Jew are by no means synonyms
Is it any wonder that, placed in such conditions, the sons of Israel sought and found ways out of this situation. One of the most affordable solutions to the problem was the transition to Orthodoxy. The fact is that from the middle of the 19th century a legal distinction was made between the concepts of a Jew and a Jew, that is, nationality ceased to be identified with religion.
This was extremely important because, in accordance with the law, only those professing the Jewish faith were discriminated against, but it did not apply to Jews who received the sacrament of baptism in the Orthodox Church. In other words, in order to have full rights, it was necessary to officially become a Christian, while nationality did not play a role.
The attitude of Russians to the crosses
So it was according to the law, as for the attitude of the broad masses of the Jews towards converts, it depended on the level of anti-Semitism in a particular historical period. There were times when the prevailing opinion was that the crosses were the same Orthodox Christians as representatives of other nationalities, but it happened that they, in one form or another, were reproached for their Jewish origin. Nevertheless, they did not become victims of pogroms.
About how Jews converted to Orthodoxy, a lot of historical evidence has been preserved. In particular, it is known that during the reign of Emperor Nicholas I, more than 35 thousand Jews joined the Christian church. The conversion of the Jews to the true faith was also no less intense under Nicholas II. Then about a thousand people passed the baptismal ceremony annually.
Who are the cantonists?
A special category of Jews who accepted Orthodoxy were the so-called cantonists. These were the children of military personnel belonging to the lower ranks. According to the law, all of them were from the military department from birth, and upon reaching adulthood, they were drafted into the army. The transition to Orthodoxy opened up the prospect of career growth. Under Nicholas I, a whole network of cantonist educational institutions was created in Russia, which trained combatant non-commissioned officers, topographers, auditors, draftsmen, and other specialists for the Russian Armed Forces.
By adopting Christianity and becoming cross-Jews, in most cases Jews took the Orthodox names indicated on that day in the holy calendar and the names of their godparents, thus becoming the Ivanovs, Petrovs and Sidorovs. Note that for cantonists such a change in personal data was mandatory.
A load of unresolved issues
Were all problems connected with Jewish origin solved by the conversion to Orthodoxy? It is safe to say that no. Firstly, as mentioned above, the people did not always treat them correctly, and secondly, they were still subject to some legislative restrictions. For example, at the end of the 19th century, a decree of the Holy Synod was issued prohibiting the ordination of priests.
In addition, Jews did not have the right to serve in the Navy, and since 1910 they were not promoted to officers. Soon, this restriction was extended not only to the crosses themselves, but also to their children and grandchildren. Yesterday's Jews were not allowed to serve as gendarmes. Nevertheless, yesterday’s Jews and Orthodox citizens of Russia could sometimes become members of the State Duma.
An example is Moses Isaakovich Derevyanko, who in February 1907 became a deputy from the Kharkov province. However, this did not happen often. Only after the Provisional Government, which came to power in February 1917, legally abolished all religious and national restrictions, Jews became fully considered citizens of the country.