During the First World War, the German command began to use chemical weapons for the first time to attack opponents. As a result of chemical attacks killed more than a million people. The "king" of poisonous gases of the First World War was mustard gas. The article answers the questions about what mustard gas is and where it is used.
History of creation
Mustard is the scientific name for 2,2′-dichloroethyl thioether. It is impossible to say exactly who was the first to synthesize the gas. At about the same time (1860), several scientists were able to isolate this ether in laboratories. In Germany, the discovery was made by Albert Niman, in England - Frederick Guthrie, in France - Cesar Depre. German Victor Mayer (1886) was able to develop a method for obtaining pure mustard gas. Also, these scientists conducted the first laboratory tests, the result of which were works describing the toxic effects of mustard gas on humans.
A colleague who also took part in research together with V. Mayer was a Russian scientist Nikolai Dmitrievich Zelinsky. Unfortunately, in the process of work, N. D. Zelinsky received a burn and poisoning with this gas, which did not allow further testing. Based on the work of W. Mayer, in 1916, two chemists, V. Lommel and V. Steinkopf, developed and introduced the industrial production of toxic gas, which was called Lost (the first two letters of the names of scientists). The name of the gas is not fixed.
In July 17, 1917, during an attack on the Belgian city of Ypres, the Germans used mines stuffed with oily toxic substance. The effect of mustard gas on a person was merciless. He even penetrated clothing and shoes. As a result of the bombardment from mustard gas, about 2500 people suffered, about 100 people died. After this deadly attack, the gas got its current name - mustard gas. The second name of the poisonous substance, which is also heard, is “mustard gas”. This is due to the specific smell of mustard gas, which resembles the aroma of mustard or horseradish.
Production Methods in Industry
After the cruel events near the city of Ypres, the opponents of Germany began to actively develop methods for the industrial production of toxic gas. The British, Americans and French used the direct synthesis proposed by Nimon and Guthrie to produce ether. Mustard was obtained by combining two substances, ethylene and sulfur chlorides. This process is not as labor intensive and expensive as the method used by the Germans.
In Germany, W. Mayer method was used to obtain mustard gas, but supplemented. "Mustard gas" was produced by combining thiodiglycol with phosphorus trichloride. Despite the fact that this method required more time for synthesis, the Germans used only it. After all, the final product was several times larger (95%) than with other methods.
Physical properties
The main physical properties of 2,2′-dichloroethyl thioether:
- Colorless fluid.
- The smell is pungent, similar to garlic, mustard.
- Boiling point - 217 ° .
- Melting point - 14.5 ° C.
- The substance is destroyed at a temperature of 150 ° C; complete decomposition at 500 ° C.
- The density of the substance is higher than the density of water.
- At high air temperatures, the stability of a poisonous gas decreases, but the number of ether molecules in the air increases due to good volatility.
Chemical properties
Sulfur, two chlorine atoms and ethylene are responsible for the chemical properties of mustard gas:
- Slightly soluble in water. Mixing occurs only with thorough mixing. For example, if you get into any body of water, mustard gas will not dissolve in water, but will remain with the same chemical composition, being at a depth. In some cases, it can form a thin film on the surface of the water.
- It is soluble in vegetable and animal fats, organic solvents.
- Inert to many types of metals; aluminum capsules may serve as a liquid storage container.
Mustard: human exposure
Mustard refers to toxic substances of a skin-boiling effect. What is the mechanism of action of poison on the human body?
- Due to the good solubility of mustard gas in fats of plant and animal origin, it freely penetrates the human body through the skin. In hot weather, sweat secretions contribute to the enhanced absorption of toxic gas .
- In the human body, mustard is quickly broken down. In this case, other toxic compounds are formed that cause great harm to humans.
- Lymphocytes and white blood cells are primarily affected by mustard gas. As a result, the immune system becomes vulnerable.
- The next in degree of negative impact are the organs of the hematopoietic system, intestinal mucosa.
- Mustard gas is capable of changing the structure of DNA.
The toxic effect of mustard gas on the body is as follows:
- Upon initial contact with small doses of mustard gas, a person may not immediately notice the effect of gas on the surface of the skin or respiratory tract. The latent period is 6-8 hours. Only an increase in gas concentration in the environment will lead to sneezing or sore throat.
- The toxic substance accumulates in the body, thereby exacerbating the patient's condition.
- With any effect on the surface of the tissue and mucous membrane, cell death begins, which leads to the death of the damaged area.
- Restoring tissue after damage is very slow.
- In areas of the body damaged by a poisonous substance, abscesses occur. As a result of reduced immunity, re-infection with other infections can occur, which will complicate the recovery of the patient or lead to death.
- Mutations occur.
- The sensitivity of the body to pathogens increases.
Mustard: consequences, forms of poisonous gas damage
The main effect of mustard gas is on the eyes, respiratory tract, skin. If the poisonous substance is sprayed in the form of gas, then the effect of mustard gas on a person occurs most often through the organs of vision, then the respiratory system and, more rarely, the skin integument. The drip-liquid form of mustard gas primarily affects the skin. The effects of a gas attack are better treated than with liquid forms of a poisonous substance.
Mild forms of organ damage occur in the case of a short stay of a person in the zone of spread of a toxic substance with a small concentration in the form of gas (0.002 mg / l) and liquid form (0.01 mg / cm2). Medium - with an increased number of molecules of the poisonous substance in the environment: gas - 0015 mg / l, liquid-drop - 0.1 mg / cm2. Severe mustard gas poisoning, which can lead to death, occurs when the concentration of the substance in a vaporous state is 0.07 mg / l. A photo of the effect of mustard gas on a person can be seen in the article.
Three forms of respiratory damage:
- Mild lesion: inflammation of the mucous membrane of the pharynx, nose. It manifests itself in copious discharge from the nose, difficulty swallowing, sore throat. After 10-12 days, the symptoms disappear.
- Medium form: cough with purulent discharge, high body temperature, chest pain. With insufficient treatment leads to the development of pneumonia. Timely prescribed therapy contributes to recovery in a month and a half.
- Severe: poisoning symptoms occur several hours after exposure to mustard gas. Manifestations of intoxication are coughing with purulent discharge, high fever, pneumonia develops on the third day, which can turn into lung necrosis and death. Recovery of a patient after severe poisoning is difficult.
Three forms of damage to the organs of vision:
- The eyes are most sensitive to the effects of mustard gas (gas). Even at low concentrations (0.005 mg / l), after half an hour - three hours you feel pain, burning, a feeling of sand in the eyes, the mucous membranes of the eyes swell, tears run strongly. After a couple of weeks, the condition returns to normal.
- With damage to the eyes of moderate severity, the symptoms described above are aggravated, the cornea of the eye is additionally inflamed, purulent discharge appears. Such lesions are treatable, recovery occurs after three months.
- Severe forms of lesion occur if drip mustard has got into the eyes. The cornea of the eye is severely affected, inflammation first occurs, then clouding, after the death of corneal tissue, most often leads to blindness.
Three forms of skin lesions:
- A mild form of damage: at the site of contact of the skin and the poisonous substance, inflammation occurs, pigment spots, peeling appear. After a week and a half, symptoms disappear, only pigmentation can last quite a long time.
- With moderate severity of exposure, small blisters appear on the skin, which then combine into one, burst, revealing the subcutaneous layers. In this case, infection with other infections may occur, which will aggravate the course of the disease. Also, this form is characterized by severe itching and soreness. Symptoms go away in a month.
- The most severe form is the third. It is characterized by deep tissue lesions that develop into difficult to heal necrotic ulcers. Recovery occurs after 4 months.
Mustard can also enter the gastrointestinal tract with poisoned food or water. Toxic changes are recorded in the oral cavity, esophagus and stomach. In the intestine, as a rule, no inflammation occurs due to the fact that the poisonous substance enters the blood from the stomach. Symptoms: fever, vomiting, diarrhea, malfunctioning of the heart, general exhaustion of the body. Severe forms of poisoning lead to death.
First aid
First of all, in order to avoid the toxic effect of mustard gas on a person, it is necessary to protect the skin and respiratory organs, eyes with special means - a gas mask and a protective suit.
If drops of mustard gas get on the skin, it can be neutralized by applying a special substance from an individual anti-chemical package, if it is not there, then use an alcohol solution of chloramine. In case of damage to the eyes, rinse them with running water or a weak soda solution. The penetration of mustard gas in the digestive tract is blocked by washing the stomach with a weak solution of potassium permanganate.
Application
The first use of mustard gas by the Germans occurred during the war between the Fourth Union and the Entente. In the literature, this armed conflict is often called a chemical war, because during this period a terrifying amount of poisonous lethal substances was tested and applied.
The German military used mustard gas to stop the advance of the enemy army near the city of Ypres. On the night of July 13, 1917, the Germans attacked the Entente forces with mustard gas. The consequences of the first use of the poisonous substance turned out to be terrible: about 2,500 people were injured, about 100 died on the spot. Many died after the military operation, since the action of lethal gas does not appear immediately. After this German attack, the British, Americans, and French decided to adopt mustard gas too.
Thousands of dead, mutilated fates, bodies, faces of soldiers and civilians, pollution of land and water - the consequences of the use of chemical weapons during the war. The civilized world could not allow the repetition of such horror in the future. As a result, in 1925 the Geneva Protocol was signed on the prohibition of the use of chemical weapons and bacteriological weapons in wartime.
Despite the ban, many countries still used poisonous substances to corner their adversaries and win the war.
Mussolini did not hesitate to use mustard gas in the war of the Italian state against Ethiopia (1935-1936). The main goal is to unite the northern part of Africa under the flag of Italy, therefore cruel military methods, including chemical attacks, were used. As a result, Italy annexed Ethiopia and merged with Eritrea and Italian Somalia into a new colony.
In 1943, a tragedy occurred, as a result of which not only the military, but also civilians of the port of Bari suffered. The German squadron bombarded American ships, one of which carried shells stuffed with mustard gas. Despite the fact that the transported bombs were without fuses, an air strike was enough to activate the toxic contents. A chemical attack occurred , killing about 90 people.
The Japanese excelled everyone in the testing and use of chemical weapons in China. In the early thirties of the 20th century, they purchased from Germany equipment for the production of toxic gas on an industrial scale. The Japanese army built several chemical plants in the provinces of China. They carried out tests of toxic substances on prisoners of war and ordinary peasants! Soldiers of the land of the rising sun considered the Chinese a consumable. The Japanese army "did not spare" chemical weapons during the hostilities in China (1937-1945). After the end of the Sino-Japanese war, the Japanese, getting rid of the "evidence", buried or drowned in the ponds huge reserves of chemical weapons. In the 90s of the 20th century there were cases when hastily disposed chemical shells were damaged and ordinary citizens experienced the poisonous effect of mustard gas. In 2010, reports appeared in the press that a plant would be built in China to dispose of chemical weapons buried by the Japanese.
Chemical weapons ban
On September 3, 1993, the Chemical Weapons Convention was proposed for signature. It entered into force only in April 1997, after it was signed by 65 states. According to this agreement, countries must destroy all chemical weapons stockpiles in the territory and preserve programs for the development and introduction of new types of toxic substances. To date, the convention has been signed by 190 countries that are members of the UN. About 60% of the stockpiles of all chemical weapons are utilized.
Modern realities
The Convention was supported by many countries, but poisonous substances continue to be used not only during military conflicts, but also during the bombing of peaceful cities. So in the spring of 2017, the media exploded with reports of the use of mustard gas in military Iraq. The initiators of the chemical attack were representatives of the Islamic state (banned in Russia). Also, the use of chemical weapons was recorded in the cities of Syria (2016-2017). Poisoning attacks affect not only the military, but also civilians. Although the Syrian government officially announced that the last shipment of chemical weapons was exported in June 2014. Mustard laboratories in military Iraq discovered by the Americans. UN commissions conduct investigations on every fact of the use of toxic substances.
Mustard gas?
After the tragedy in 1943, the bodies of the dead were examined by scientists in the Italian port of Bari. As a result of the examination, it was found that in the hematopoietic organs and lymph nodes, there were no white blood cells. This finding led scientists to the fact that mustard gas can be used in therapy against cancer. Researchers from America, Goodman and Gilman, based on mustard gas, developed a substance that was administered in small doses to a patient with lymphoma. At first, the drug had a depressing effect on the tumor formation. It decreased in size. But after some time, the cancer progressed. And the substance accumulated in the body based on mustard gas did not begin to help the body, but rather poison it. Man was dying of intoxication.
In small concentrations, mustard gas is used to treat skin disease psoriasis. On the basis of mustard oil, ointments were created where it is contained in a proportion of 1 in 20,000 or 40,000. But for the last 20 years, medicine has rarely resorted to such a radical method of treatment.
During wars, various methods are used, sometimes very cruel to achieve their goals. But not always the end justifies the means. So it happened with the use of chemical weapons. The consequences of the use of toxic substances are shocking (including the effects of mustard gas on humans). Until now, humanity is trying to cope with the consequences of using chemical weapons. To date, the main task of the civilized world is not to repeat such mistakes.