European culture of the X-XIV centuries. still amazes researchers with its achievements in the field of art. Gothic and Romanesque styles had a tremendous impact not only on medieval architecture. Their features can be traced in painting, literature, sculpture, music and even the fashion of that distant era.
The Romanesque style, which became the first significant cultural phenomenon of the feudal era, lasted from the end of the 10th to the 12th century. It was formed in difficult times, when Europe broke up into small feudal states that were at war with each other. Almost all types of art, some to a greater extent, others to a lesser extent, were influenced by the Romanesque style, which became a logical stage in the evolution of medieval European culture.
Between Antiquity and the New Age
From the moment Odoacer, the leader of one of the Germanic tribes, overthrew the last West Roman Emperor Romulus Augustulus in 476, historians traditionally begin the countdown of the next era - the Middle Ages. It is believed that this period ended at the end of the 15th century, when Europeans began to discover and actively explore new continents for them.
The name "Middle Ages" was coined by Italian humanists in the 15th century. They believed that the time was coming for the revival of ancient culture, knowledge, traditions and values that had been forgotten for a thousand years. The humanists were sure that nothing worthy had happened since the fall of Rome, that it was a dark period of decline and barbarism. Therefore, with a fair degree of condescension, they called the past millennium the Middle Ages - the gap between Antiquity and the nascent New Time.
Partly humanists were right: once prosperous cities and good roads fell into decay, ancient culture was almost forgotten. Religious fanatics deliberately destroyed her legacy. But on the other hand, the Middle Ages had a significant impact on the development of human culture. It was during this period that modern European languages were formed, universities were opened, works that still concern us were written, many cities, magnificent cathedrals were built, a new style in art was born - romance.
Spiritual activity also increased: the pilgrimage became widespread. On the roads of Europe, thousands of people went to monasteries to worship relics and relics.
origin of name
It is no coincidence that the new direction in culture was called the Romanesque style, since it was based on techniques developed back in ancient Rome. Of course, he was not directly related to pagan culture, on the contrary, the new style was completely formed on the basis of Christian doctrine. Nevertheless, much of it resembled Antiquity: monumental buildings were built, the same aesthetic standards that the architects of Rome adhered to were observed. For example, there were no small details, excessive decor, the emphasis in the structures was on powerful masonry. The Romanesque style in the Middle Ages became pan-European; its canons were adhered to in all states of the continent, including Ancient Russia.
Key Features
A new direction in art completely rejected the stock of decorative and ornamental means inherent in ancient architecture and its inherent proportional forms. That little that still survived was coarsened and changed.
To the features of the Romanesque style, art historians include:
- his emotional beginning, psychologism;
- the unity of various arts, among which architecture has occupied a leading place;
- theocentrism (God at the center of everything);
- the religious nature of art;
- impersonality (it was believed that the hand of the master was directed by God, therefore the names of medieval creators are almost unknown to us).
The style features of the novel are:
- huge buildings made entirely of stone;
- semicircular vaulted arch;
- massive and thick walls;
- reliefs;
- wall paintings ;
- flat, voluminous images;
- sculpture and painting were subordinate to architecture and used in temples and monasteries.
The main architectural structures of the Romanesque style:
- Feudal castle. Usually it was located on a hill, convenient for observation and defense. A quadrangular or round tower - a dungeon, was the core of the fortress.
- Temple. It was built in the tradition of the basilica. It was a longitudinal building with three (rarely five) naves.
- The monastery complex, which was characterized by narrow windows and thick walls.
And the medieval cities themselves with the market square in the center where the cathedral was built looked more like fortresses surrounded by massive walls.
Romanesque style in the architecture of the Middle Ages
XI-XIII centuries - This is the time of the brilliant flowering of European art. Knightly castles and royal palaces, bridges and city halls were erected. Christianity had a great influence on the development of medieval architecture, as well as on other areas of public life of this period. After the fall of the Roman Empire, state borders and rulers changed, only the powerful Christian church remained unshakable. To strengthen her influence, she resorted to special methods. One of them was the construction of majestic temples in the central squares of cities. It was sometimes the only tall stone building that was noticeably from afar.
As already mentioned, the architectural style that prevailed in Europe in the XI-XII centuries (and in some countries in the XIII centuries) was called Romanesque from the Latin word Roma (Rome), since the masters of that time used some ancient Roman methods of construction. In the West, the basilica has been preserved, unlike Byzantium, where over time it gave way to a cross-domed church. True, its forms have become more complicated and improved. So, the size of the eastern part of the church increased, and under its floor there was a crypt - a secret room. Here holy relics were kept and the ministers of the church were buried.
All buildings in the Romanesque style, whether basilicas or castles, had similar features:
- monumentality;
- poorly divided forms;
- the severe fortress character of architecture;
- the predominance of straight lines (with the exception of only semicircular arches).
At the crossroads of busy roads
Of course, in the XI-XII centuries, the leading role belonged to church architecture. By that time, the pontificate had concentrated incredible wealth in its hands, some of which went to the construction of temples and monasteries. In the same period, the number of pilgrims increased unusually, so the old Romanesque basilicas, located on the most crowded roads, could no longer accommodate all the pilgrims. For this reason, the construction of temples begins to experience a real boom. After about 1000, dozens of basilicas were rebuilt in a short time, especially in Italy and France. European nations competed with each other, trying to surpass the decoration and size of their temples.
However, the first Romanesque churches were not distinguished by grace, they were relatively short and massive. The windows were small, the walls were thick, because the temple was primarily considered as a place of refuge, both spiritual and physical (during sieges). The masonry walls reached 3, and sometimes up to 5 meters in thickness.
Decor was rarely used in the design of the church facade, the exterior decoration was very modest, with a few sculptural elements. All attention was focused on the interior decor. The interior was decorated in large numbers with frescoes (murals on raw stucco), reliefs and sculptures inherited from the ancient world. This tradition was actively developed in the Middle Ages, becoming one of the characteristic features of the Romanesque style.
What were basilicas?
These were three- or five-nave structures of a rectangular shape. Initially, the central nave had a wooden ceiling, but over time they learned to block it with stone arches. Nevertheless, only extremely powerful walls and pillars dividing the naves could withstand their pressure. Narrow, loophole-like windows made the walls more reliable. Therefore, outwardly Romanesque churches often resembled fortresses, and twilight reigned inside them.
The powerful towers that towered both at the intersection of the transept and the main nave, and at the eastern wall and at the corners of the western facade, only strengthened the similarity of the basilica with the fortress. In addition, the appearance of the temple was given rigor, grandeur and even severity. During the wars, Romanesque basilicas served as a safe haven, along with fortresses.
The abundance of semicircular arches is another notable feature of the Romanesque style. In medieval temples, they were used not only in doors and windows, but also in the design of facades and interiors.
The western part of the Romanesque basilica was decorated extremely luxuriantly. This served two purposes: attracting believers and intimidating those who lead an unrighteous life. Therefore, the plots for church tympans (a deep niche above the entrance, framed by an arch) were chosen accordingly.
Cluny Abbey Church is a wonderful example of Romanesque temple architecture. Moreover, the techniques used for its construction had a significant impact on medieval masters.
Features of the Romanesque style in ancient Russian architecture
Vladimir-Suzdal Rus was famous for its white-stone architecture. The construction of Orthodox churches reached its peak under Andrei Bogolyubsky. The prince invited German masters who enriched Russian architecture with receptions of West European Romanesque architecture. From that time, the Golden Gate in Vladimir, which was once part of the city wall, has survived to the present day. Another example of Romanesque style is the Assumption Temple. Next to it, Vladimir Cathedral was later erected in Vladimir, characterized by a wealth of white stone carvings and beautiful frescoes.
Knight's castles
The Romanesque style in the Middle Ages was reflected in the construction of fortresses. The period of the XI-XII centuries. - This is the time of the development of knightly culture and the formation of feudal relations. Until the second half of the 10th century, castles were built of wood on natural hills or on mound hills. Later, such fortresses began to be erected in accordance with Roman traditions and according to special rules. They had special watchtowers, the main of which was the dungeon. The only entrance opened from inside the castle complex. The furniture was to match the premises: massive, functional, at least decorated, in a word, fully consistent with the prevailing Romanesque style.
The fortifications had their own small church, a prison and many vaults that could withstand long sieges.
A good example of a castle in the Romanesque style is the Conwy Fortress (Wales, UK). It is one of the largest surviving medieval fortresses. The castle was erected by decree of Edward the First at the end of the 13th century. Conwy is surrounded by 8 cylindrical towers, in which the sun almost does not look, and massive defensive walls. Their masonry practically did not suffer for 800 years, although the fortress was repeatedly subjected to sieges. The king spent a fabulous sum on its construction - 15 thousand pounds, which at the current rate is 193 million euros. Conwy Castle, whose territory is divided into external and internal courtyards, was built on a hill and was considered impregnable. To protect the walls from possible undermining, they were erected on a solid rocky rock.
art
Until the X century in European painting there were practically no images of man. She abounded with plant, animal and geometric ornaments. But with the birth of the Romanesque style, ornamental art is replaced by the image of a man: holy and biblical characters. Of course, this was still a conditional reproduction, but, undoubtedly, it marked a big step forward.
In the decor of Romanesque churches, a large place was given to frescoes and stained-glass windows. The walls, vaults, columns and capitals of the basilica were painted with colorful multicolored frescoes. Such churches were “inhabited” by a large number of fantastic creatures carved in stone. Medieval sculptors borrowed them from the pagan past of the Germanic and Celtic tribes.
Unfortunately, only a small part of the monumental painting in the Romanesque style has survived. Such examples are the frescoes of the monastery churches of Santa Maria de Igasel (Spain) and Saint-Saven-sur-Gartamp (France).
In the latter case, we are talking about a large cycle of paintings that occupy the entire space of the vault, on which various biblical subjects are laconic. On a light background, figures clearly outlined in a bright outline.
The secular arts and crafts can be judged by the embroidered tapestry from Bayeux. On a long strip of carpet, episodes of the conquest of England by Norman knights in 1066 are woven.
In addition to frescoes, a book miniature, which was distinguished by splendor and brilliance, was widespread in the Roman era. In the monasteries there were special workshops - scriptories, where manuscripts corresponded and decorated. The book miniature of that period strove for narration. The image, like the text, was divided into paragraphs - visual units of the story. However, there were illustrations that were independent in nature and reflected the essence of the narrative. Or, the artists entered the text into the strict geometric figures of the drawing. A large variety of different miniatures, which illustrate the historical chronicles.
Heroic epic
The Romanesque style in art manifested itself in literature. Several new genres arose, each of which corresponded to the lifestyle, requirements, and level of education of a particular estate. The most widely distributed, of course, was Christian literature. In addition to the Bible, religious treatises and teachings of the Church Fathers, which were mainly read by theologians, biographies of canonized lay people and clergy were also popular.
In addition to the church, secular literature also developed. It is noteworthy that her best works continue to be read even in our age of high technology. The Romanesque era is the heyday of the heroic epic. It arose on the basis of folk songs and tales of the exploits of fearless heroes who fought dragons, sorcerers, and villains. Epic works were not intended to be read, but to be performed aloud, often to the accompaniment of musical instruments (viola or harp). For this reason, most of them are written in poetic form. The most famous epic works of that era include:
- The Elder Edda, a collection of Old Icelandic sagas in which mythology and Christianity are fancifully intertwined.
- "Song of the Nibelungs", telling about the fate of the German knight Siegfried.
- Beowulf, an ancient Anglo-Saxon epic that tells of a brave fighter with dragons.
Over time, the heroes of epics became not mythical, but real personalities, and the works themselves began to talk about events that took place in reality. These historical and epic poems include the Spanish Song of Side and the French Song of Roland. The latter tells of the campaign of Charlemagne in the Basque country and the death of Count Roland, who, together with his detachment, covered the retreat of the royal army through the Pyrenees.
Linear mill
For musical art of the XI-XII centuries, of great importance was its division into secular and church music. In this era, for all Western European countries, the organ becomes a recognized temple instrument, and the Latin language becomes a single form of liturgical singing. Christian music, the creators of which were mainly French and Italian monks, played a huge role in laying the foundations of the professional musical culture of Europe.
The milestone in the history of this art was the innovation made by Guido from Arezzo. This Italian monk, who taught boys singing, developed the principles of musical notation, which are still used today. Before him, sounds were recorded by nevmas, square notes. However, using them, it was not possible to visualize the pitch of the sound. Guido from Arezzo placed the tunes on a 4-note linear mill, thereby solving the problem.
The Romanesque style that prevailed in Europe influenced the choreography. Bassdans - a medieval dance, performed to the singing of dancing or to the accompaniment of musical instruments. It looked more like a solemn procession than a dance. Bassdance, heavy and magnificent, like castles and temples, was a reflection of the Romanesque period in European art.
Cutter and stone
Better examples of the Romanesque architectural style represented the unity of architecture, sculpture and painting. Already from a distance, going to worship, believers saw the external sculptural decoration of the facade of the temple. Inside, they passed through the main portal - an entrance richly decorated with stone carving, located on the western side of the building. Its massive bronze gates were often decorated with reliefs depicting biblical scenes.
Inside the temple, the believer walked towards the altar past arches, columns, capitals, walls, also decorated with stone carvings and frescoes. The images were based on scripture plots, but the main figure always remained the figure of God Almighty, merciless to unrepentant sinners and triumphing over enemies. That is how the Creator was represented by the people of the Middle Ages. It is no coincidence that Roman-style temples were called the Bible in Stone.
In the sculpture of that period, as in painting, the role of the human figure in the decorative and ornamental composition is reinforced. However, the monumental sculpture inherited from Antiquity was completely subordinate to architectural forms. Therefore, a huge role in decorating the basil was assigned to stone sculpture, usually created against the backdrop of reliefs. As a rule, they decorated not only the interior, but also the exterior walls of the basilica. In friezes - decorative compositions, figures of squat proportions prevailed, and on pillars and columns - elongated.
Features of sculpting
In addition, sculptural reliefs were located above the main portal. Most often it was an image of the Last Judgment. Probably the most famous is the scene adorning the entrance of the Cathedral of Saint-Lazare in the city of Autun (Burgundy). This is a rare case when the name of the master who created the relief, Gislebert, reached us.
In the center of the image is the figure of Christ administering judgment. On his right hand stand the rejoicing righteous, on his left - trembling sinners. The most remarkable thing about this relief is the diversity of human feelings. Fear or hope is reflected in movements, poses, and faces. The main thing for the master was not to create believable figures, but to depict the whole gamut of feelings experienced.
In each country, sculpture had its own national characteristics. For example, in Germany, unlike France, the facades and external walls of churches were almost not decorated. German sculpture of the Romanesque style is strict and ascetic, austere and quite abstract. An example of this is Laah Abbey Church of St. Mary.
In the sculptural decoration of Romanesque churches, not only love for the spiritual was manifested, but also for the extraordinary, fantastic. Here you can see stone ornaments of rare beauty and complexity: centaurs, winged dragons, monkeys playing chess, etc. Figures of fairy-tale creatures borrowed from the traditions of Germanic tribes often adorned the facades and capitals of columns of Romanesque basilicas.
"French manner"
The Romanesque and Gothic style, which replaced it in the 13th century, left a huge imprint on the development of European culture of the Middle Ages. If the novel was a combination of rigor and monumentality (no fantasies, only clear geometry and prayer mood), then Gothic was light and sublime.
It originated in the XII century. in northern France, and then spread throughout almost the entire continent: from Portugal to Lithuania. At that time it was called the "French manner", and subsequently a new direction was called "Gothic". In many ways, the architecture of the Gothic cathedral preserved the traditions of the Romanesque style. Almost all of its elements remained, but in a modified form: instead of thick pillars, thin bunches of graceful columns appeared, semicircular arches stretched up, small windows became huge, filling the temple with light.
Afterword
The first own achievement of the European peoples, different from ancient art, was, of course, the Romanesque style. Photos of medieval temples, sculptures, book miniatures serve as indisputable evidence that this period marked a significant cultural step forward.