A word in a language has a certain lexical meaning, which is revealed in a specific situation. Often words take on one or another meaning only by entering into grammatical and logical relationships with other tokens. These are stable combinations of words, where the latter, communicating with each other, form a new single meaning.
Lexical word compatibility
In speech, words appear not in isolation, but surrounded by other words with which they must be combined lexically, grammatically, logically. For example, the word flower requires coordination in number, gender and case, that is, the adjective or participle must be masculine, stand in the singular and in the nominative case: forest flower . If you use an adjective that is not suitable in meaning ( cloudy flower ), then the lexical compatibility of words is violated.
Sustainable word combinations are an absolute connection in which replacement of components is not allowed. So, the combination of sun bunny has the meaning of "reflected sunbeam." If one component of this combination is replaced, then it will lose its value (combinations on a sunny day, a cowardly bunny no longer have the indicated meaning). In a word, the lexical compatibility of words in stable expressions is absolute and traditional.
The semantic compatibility of words, that is, semantic, is genetically embedded in native speakers. The intuition of the possibility of using the phrase apple orchard and the comic version of the apple orchard is felt.
Phraseologisms
There are many words requiring specific components next to them. It happens that the reason for limiting the compatibility of a word lies in its attachment to a certain environment - it is stable combinations of words, they are called differently by phraseological units. This is the term of the French linguist Charles Bally, meaning "phrase-word."
Indeed, stable combinations of words (phraseological units) consist of several components (this is characteristic of a phrase), and are synonymous with one word: to
chop on the nose - to remember, to draw water in the mouth - to shut up, to open the mouth wide - to be surprised .
Linguistic Discussions
A science that studies the structure and characteristics of phraseological units is called phraseology. Linguists discuss the issue of its volume. There are disagreements in the theoretical justification of phraseological units. In certain groups of linguists, any stable combinations of words entrenched in the language are called that way. Lexicographic observations allow us to judge different approaches to this issue. Phraseologisms are considered to be only those stable combinations in which the meaning is not interpreted by describing the individual components.
So, phraseological
units sharpening their baldness or
flying in the clouds cannot be explained by the description of each word. An indivisible, well-established combination is the meaning of such constructions.
Many linguists do not include sayings, aphorisms, speech stamps in phraseological turns . They believe that phraseological units (stable combinations of words) are those combinations that are equivalent to one word.
Classification of Vinogradov-Shansky
Victor Vladimirovich Vinogradov, an outstanding Russian linguist with a worldwide reputation, described in detail stable combinations of words in Russian and classified them. In his works, phraseological units are divided into phraseological unions (idioms proper), phraseological unity and phraseological combinations. Nikolai Maksimovich Shansky expanded the classification of Vinogradov, highlighting a group of phraseological expressions.
Splices
Combinations include combinations whose semantics are clear only in a specific connection. The value of the components of the idiom separately is absolutely not visible.
The semantics of fusion are
uneven hour, miracles in the sieve, toss the glove, beat the bucks, a stone's throw and others can not be explained by the interpretation of each word. The meaning of idioms is derived from a traditionally established fusion. The formation of phraseological units is a long historical process taking place in a particular language.
The personification of the history of the language are stable combinations of words. Examples of such mergers: headlong, get on a rope, how to give a drink . They are difficult to translate, as they are not motivated by the meaning of each word. In the mergers, the permutation of words and the replacement of components is impossible.
Unity
Phraseological unity, unlike accretions, consist of semantically motivated components. Their indivisible meaning is based on the metaphorical similarity of one of the words with the meaning of the whole phraseological unit. Phraseologism to bury talent in the ground has the meaning of "wasting your strength in vain", it is explained by the metaphor: bury in the ground - "hide, hide." Phraseological unity is less idiomatic than splices. Unities can be diluted in other words, sometimes replacing one of the components. For example, in phraseology, to call a spade a spade is sometimes replaced by a pronoun: call a spade a spade . Phraseological unity called idiomatic expressions.
Combinations
The semantics of phraseological combinations consists of the meanings of all the components that make up a stable expression. Moreover, in combination there is both a free component and a related component. The set of values of each of them reveals the single meaning of the expression. For example, phraseologism a sworn enemy includes the attached word sworn and free enemy . Also in combinations is a bosom friend , a ticklish position, a crackling frost , a grin of teeth and others.
Expressions
Phraseological expressions highlighted by N. M. Shansky are phraseological units consisting of free words. There are no related items. Often phraseological expressions are similar to cliches, proverbs, winged expressions and aphorisms.
For example,
all ages are submissive to love, all the best, until we meet again, not a day without a line . In the process of speech, phraseological expressions are not invented by the speaker, but are issued from memory.
Phraseologisms in English
The rich fund of English phraseology, which for centuries has been replenished with numerous borrowings from Latin, German, French, Spanish, is of particular interest to linguists. Knowledge of the phraseology of a foreign language shows the level of the translator. High qualification of such a specialist helps to avoid language misunderstanding.
Stable combinations of words in the English language can be divided according to the classification of V.V. Vinogradov. Phraseological conjunctions are most difficult to translate, since the words that make up it are related. The semantics of such constructions follows from the general meaning.
For example,
kick the bucket does not translate literally like kicking and bucket. Here, the words, connecting with each other, give out a special meaning that can be translated by Russian phraseologism to
stretch your legs .
Phraseological unity in the English language exists in parallel with homonymous free expressions. For example, to keep a dog and bark oneself as phraseology has the meaning of "doing the work of a hired person." The translation of a homonymous free combination means "to have a dog that barks at the owner." High expression of phraseological unity is a feature of the English language.
Phraseological combinations allow the replacement of one of the components. These include words with a fixed meaning and free. Phraseologism to have a narrow escape , allowing the omission of the to have component, is translated by the Russian combination of salvation by miracle . This group of phraseological units is the easiest to translate due to the inclusion of combinations of mythology, Holy Scripture ( Sisyphus labor, Adam’s apple, and Hilles’s heel, Ariadne’s thread, apple of discord, and others).
English proverbs, sayings without allegorical meaning refer to phraseological expressions. They consist of words with free meanings, but they are traditionally reproducible: many men many minds are translated in Russian phraseological terms, how many people, so many opinions.
Phraseological Foundation
Phraseologisms by origin can be historical (primordial) and borrowed. Persuasions are often stable combinations of words with negative pronouns, with archaisms and historicisms. For example, there is nothing to cover; nothing at all; no one is forgotten, nothing is forgotten; word of mouth; in the lap of nature; one like a finger; breed the gimlet; not a bast.
Such stable combinations of words that entered the language in the finished form, often without translation, are considered to be borrowed. Ways of borrowing phraseological units are different. Mythology, ancient literature, Scripture, masterpieces of world literature bring stable combinations of words into the language. Examples of phraseological units taken from the Latin language: alma mater, idea fix, tête-à-tête. The Bible gave such enduring expressions as the prodigal son, the lamb of God, the wolf in sheep's clothing, washing his hands and many others. From the works of fiction they went to the phraseological foundation of the Russian language of expression, but was there a boy? (M. Gorky), our smaller brothers (S. Yesenin), distribution of elephants (M. Zoshchenko).
The use of phraseological units in speech
The speech of the speaker, widely using phraseological expressions, sounds bright, beautiful and expressive. Phraseologisms emphasize the free possession of a person by the word, show the level of his education. Knowledge of phraseology and the appropriate use of stable expressions speaks of perfect language proficiency.
The ability of phraseologists to make speech more imaginative and lively is appreciated by journalists, writers, politicians, diplomats and representatives of other professions related to communicative activity and speech exposure. Writers often modify phraseological units by adding components, often epithets, which makes speech even more imaginative and expressive. The meaning of stable combinations of words acquires an ironic character when replacing part of a stable turnover.
Contamination of phraseological units is used by publicists in article headings, essays, and complaints. The changed expressions are assigned to a separate group of phraseological units - occasionalisms.
Phrasebook
When using stable combinations of words, it is necessary to know their semantics exactly, to take into account the stylistic originality. Associative errors in the use of phraseological units, when the component is incorrectly called, is replaced by a paronym or a word similar in sound ( to lose heart, even if there is a cheshie ), they speak of ignorance of the history of the language and the etymology of the language. The incorrect, inappropriate use of phraseological expressions dramatically changes the meaning of the statement, distorts it, makes it absurd ( they sang their swan song, send school graduates on the last journey ). Phraseological dictionaries help to avoid such mistakes. They give an interpretation of the phraseological unit, explain the origin, provide synonymous words and expressions. Bilingual and multilingual publications provide equivalent translation.