“Truth is born in a dispute!” - we all know this statement. But in order for this truth to appear, it is necessary to use a sufficient number of arguments and facts. Fact is a unit of philosophy that does not require proof. And this value is familiar to many. And what is an argument?
Philosophy
The argument is the basis of evidence or that part of it on which reality is based or in which the main evidentiary power is located.
Depending on the purpose pursued in proving, the argument can be of several types:
1. Argument ad hominem (biased). Here, evidence is based on personal premises and beliefs, as well as affirmations.
2. Argument ad veritatem (declaration of truth). Here the evidence comes from a statement verified by science, society and objectivity.
3. Argument e consensus gentium. In this case, the proof is what they believed from time immemorial.
4. Argument a tuto. The proof is decisive in the case of insufficient other arguments, it is based on the judgment that if it does not help, then it will not do much harm.
5. Argument a baculo (last argument). In this case, if all the arguments are exhausted, the last argument in the dispute is the use of physical force.
Logics
Consider what is an argument in logic. Here, this concept is a set of judgments that can justify the truth of a theory or other judgment. For example, there is a saying: "Iron can be melted." Two arguments can be used to prove it: “All metals can be melted” and “Iron is metal.” From these two propositions one can logically derive the proved opinion, thereby substantiating its truth. Or, for example, the judgment "What is happiness?" Arguments here can be used such: “Happiness is different for everyone”, “A person determines the criteria by which he considers himself a happy or unhappy person.”
rules
Arguments (A), which are used in the process of proving the truth of a proposition, must be subject to certain rules:
a) the arguments must be true opinions and judgments;
b) they must be those judgments whose truth in any case can be established, regardless of opinion;
c) the arguments should be the basis of the proved opinion.
If any of the rules is violated, this will lead to logical errors that will make the proof incorrect.
What is an argument in a dispute?
Arguments that are used in a dispute or discussion are divided into several types:
1. To the merits. In this case, the argument refers to the issue that is being discussed and is aimed at substantiating the truth of the evidence. Here, the basic provisions of any theories, scientific concepts and judgments, earlier established facts, proven provisions, etc. can be applied.
If these arguments satisfy all the rules, then the proof in which they are used will be logically correct. In this case, the so-called iron argument will be used.
2. To the person. Such arguments apply only when there is a need to win a dispute or discussion. They are directed to the personality of the opponent and affect his beliefs.
From a logical point of view, such arguments are incorrect and should not be applied in a dispute where participants seek to find the truth.
Varieties of arguments "to man"
The most common types of arguments to the person are the following:
1. To authority. Here, in the discussion, the opinions and statements of writers, scientists, public figures, and so on are used as arguments. Such arguments may well exist, but they are incorrect. This is due to the fact that a person who has achieved success in a certain field cannot be an authority in other areas, therefore his opinion here may turn out to be erroneous.
The argument for authority can be applied, using the authority of the audience, public opinion, the enemy, and even your own. Sometimes a person can invent authority or ascribe judgments to people who have never expressed them.
2. To the public. Here, a person refers to the mood and feelings of the listener. In a dispute, he does not appeal to the opponent, but to the audience, random listeners in order to attract them to his side, thus exerting psychological pressure on the enemy. The use of arguments to the public is especially effective when its material interests are affected. So, if one opponent proves that the opponent’s opinion affects the material situation of those present, then he will win their sympathy.
3. To the individual. The arguments are based on the personality characteristics of the opponent, on his shortcomings and advantages, tastes and appearance. If such an argument is used, the subject of the dispute becomes the identity of the enemy in negative coverage. There are also arguments that reveal the advantages of the opponent. Often this technique is used in the courts to defend the accused.
4. To vanity. This method consists in expressing a large number of praises and compliments to the opponent in order to touch him so that he becomes more docile and softer.
5. To power. In this case, one of the opponents threatens to use force or means of coercion. This is especially true for a person endowed with power or having a weapon.
6. To pity. What is the argument for pity is quite understandable. This is an evocation of pity and empathy in the adversary. Such arguments are often used by many people who constantly complain about the severity of life and difficulties in the hope of awakening in the opponent's sympathy and desire to help.
7. To ignorance. In this case, one of the opponents uses facts that are unknown to the opponent. Often people are not able to admit that they don’t know something, because they believe that in this way they will lose their dignity. That is why, in a dispute with such people, the argument for ignorance acts ironically.
All of the above arguments are incorrect, they should not be used in a dispute. But practice shows the opposite. Most people skillfully use them to achieve their goals. If a person uses one of these arguments, he should be pointed out that they are incorrect, and the person is not sure of his position.
Algebra
Consider what is an argument in algebra. In mathematics, this concept denotes an independent variable. So, speaking of the tables where the function value of an independent variable is located, they mean that they are found by a certain argument. For example, in the logarithm table, where the value of the function log x is indicated, the number x is an argument to the table. Thus, when answering the question of what function argument is, it must be said that this is an independent variable on which the value of the function depends.
Argument increment
In mathematics, there is the concept of “increment of function and argument”. The concept of "function argument" we already know, consider what the increment of the argument. So, each argument has some meaning. The difference between its two meanings (old and new) is an increment. In mathematics, this is denoted as follows: Dx: Dx = x 1 –x 0.
Theology
In theology, the concept of "argument" has its own meaning. Here the true evidence is the divinity of Christianity, which comes from the prophecies and parables of the sages, as well as from miracles performed by Christ. As an argument in the dispute, there is also an inextricable link between thinking and being, as well as the belief that God is the most perfect reality that exists not only in thoughts, but also in the real world.
Astronomy
In astronomy, the term “pericent argument” is used. So, it represents a certain quantity that determines the landmark of the orbit of a certain celestial body with respect to the equatorial plane of some other celestial body. The argument of latitude, used in astronomy, is a certain value, which determines the position of a particular celestial body in orbit.
As you can see, the question of what is an argument cannot be answered unequivocally, since this concept has several meanings, which depend on the field in which this concept is used. Whatever argument a person uses to prove the truth in a discussion or debate, he must have logical prerequisites, based on proven facts. Only in this case the dispute will be correct and true. In any other case, the dispute will be incorrect, and the adversary who uses such arguments will not be sure of his innocence.
The complexity of the arguments that are used to prove the truth of beliefs, as well as the whole process of justification is called argumentation, the main purpose of which is to attract an opponent to your side in discussing a specific problem.